Major Discoveries in Electrical Communication in the 1800’s

The nineteenth century was a very prolific era of discovery in electrical knowledge and technologies that laid the foundation for modern electrical communication. During this period of time the foundations of modern electrically based technologies were discovered. The nineteenth century began with a debate between Luigi Galvani, and Alessandro Volta regarding the source of electricity in Galvani’s famous frog experiment. These debates lead to the invention of the battery by Volta, and the invention of Volta’s. Volta’s discoveries would lead the way for Ohm’s law several years later. However, before that discovery was made Hans Christian Ørstead discovered electromagnetism, which was then used by Andrà © Marie Amperà ¨ to show that magnetism†¦show more content†¦Galvani noticed that when a metal scalpel was brought close one of the nerves in the frog that the frog’s leg would move. Galvani stated that the electricity observed in the fr ogs was intrinsic the nerves of the frog. Galvani used multiple different metals combinations to demonstrate the electric phenomenon. He would further demonstrate that metals were seemingly unneeded. He did this by manipulating the nerves and muscles of the frogs in such way that caused the same twitch, as when a metal object was brought near. The publication of his research in 1791 would peak the interest of Alessandro Volta. Volta was convinced that Galvani’s animal electricity was not the result of the animal tissues, but the metals within those tissues. In an effort to prove this Volta invented the battery . Volta’s battery was built out of alternating zinc and copper disks with cloth (or a similar medium) soaked in salt water [10]. Volta stated the following regarding the nature of electricity with respect to Galvani’s animal electricity: Herein lies the whole secret, the whole magic of Galvanism. It is simply an artificial electricity, which acts under th e impulse of contacts between different conductors† [9]. At this point Volta’s theory of electricity by contact was fully accepted. Just after Volta’s greatest discovery and before that of Ohm, Hans Christian Ørstead discovered magnetism. Ørstead conducted a series of experiments thatShow MoreRelatedThe Development of Wireless Communication Leading to the Alexanderson Alternator Not much has1200 Words   |  5 PagesThe Development of Wireless Communication Leading to the Alexanderson Alternator Not much has changed in human nature in the past couple centuries. When we want something, we desire exactly what we want without deviation and we wish to have it quickly. This is as evident in modern times as it was in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It is difficult to imagine for the modern man, but there was once a time when messages and information had to be delivered by hand, horseback or byRead MoreThe Human Race : A Great Deal Over The Course Of Recent History Essay1050 Words   |  5 Pagesengineers - however, despite this, many do not realise their contribution and importance. One of the fundamental bases behind these engineering feats is the harnessing of energy sources, such as electrical and heat energy. This has allowed for many innovations, for example power stations, transportation, communications and computers, which have all become critical to society and the modern world in which we live. 1 – Introduction It is almost impossible, today, to look around you and not seeRead MoreThe Invention Of Inventors : Inventing Solutions Essay1338 Words   |  6 Pagesand are even taken for granted. However, if we look back in time, we can see just how impactful these inventions were. This essay will discuss the many different inventions throughout history that changed the world we live in today, for better. One major invention that is underestimated today is clothing. The common cloth used today started out as cotton. Cotton strands are separated from the seeds of a cotton plant and those fibres are used to make fabrics and clothing. Separating the cotton strandsRead MoreInventions And Inventions Of The United States1466 Words   |  6 Pagesanything along its path. The United States had a small, weak, economy, until the mid-1800s when inventions and innovations united and strengthened the economy. From the beginning of time, people have invented things and innovated to help expand their economy. Gunpowder, the printing press, language, the wheel, pottery, post offices, and man-made bridges are all examples of inventions that led to economic growth. In 1800 prior to railroads, the only practical way to travel and trade across long distancesRead MoreSteam Engine4823 Words   |  20 Pagesof time.   But, no practical uses for steam emerged until the 17th century.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The majority of people will tell you that the steam engine was invented by James Watt.   But, this is far from the truth.   Like all other great inventions and great discoveries, the steam engine came about after centuries of work by numerous scientists, engineers and even writers.   It came from a compilation of work and theories that took centuries to complete.   If James Watt was not the first to create the steam engineRead MoreThe Telegraph : The First Form Of Communications And Rise Of Modern Technological Networks2278 Words   |  10 Pagestelegraph was the first form of communications and rise of modern technological networks. This new network provided faster connections between people, places, markets, armies, and government. Telegraphs carried very important time sensitive news. For the first time man could communicate with another man from a great distance changing everything from how we saw communication. The rises of new technological networks were filling America during the mid 1800s to mid 1900 s. The idea of communicating throughoutRead MoreHow the Industrial Revolution Affects Us Today5039 Words   |  21 Pagesliving standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth†¦Nothing remotely like this economic behavior has happened before† (Robert E. Lucas, 1997). Steam power, machine-based manufacturing, water power, improved communication, and railroads were just the tip of the iceberg as far as technological innovations went. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this changeRead MoreMac vs. IBM2252 Words   |  10 Pagesending struggle to see who ranks the better competition. Because Microsoft has dominated the software field, more and more businesses use PCs rather than Macs. But does that make the PC better than the Mac. Let s take a trip back in time and review the evolution o f a computer company. It s not IBM or Microsoft. This company is Apple Computers, Incorporated. In the year 1976, before most people even thought about buying a computer for their homes. Back then the computer community added up to aRead MoreWhat differences and similarities existed between the development and the social work of the telegraph and the telephone?3611 Words   |  15 Pagesridicule, and even elements of fear. The wisdom of twenty-first century hindsight makes such reticence seem incredible and somewhat amusing, but the very magnitude of instantaneous communication was the source of anxiety in the first recipients as much as of excitement. In an era when any form of distance communication necessarily involved travel, the advent of the US telegraph in the 1844 represented a huge shift in reality. It is hardly surprising that it took a significant period of time beforeRead MoreEssay on Wireless Electricity14464 Words   |  58 Pagesrealized that battery life is almost depleted and the thought of recharging now becomes a reality. Where does one even begin to go to recharge or plug in their device? Picture being in the home of your dreams, do you want the position and placements of electrical wall outlets to tell you where your furniture or appliances are going to go? It is these simple yet important common occurrences that one considers when trying to simplify their lifestyle. With a more widespread use of wireless electricity, these

Equality in America - 3947 Words

WOMEN In the middle to late 1800s, diversity swept across the United States of America. What is diversity? Diversity implies a wide variety in gender, race, culture, ethnicity, age, and other characteristics of certain groups (Diversity, 2006). Diversity is present in every possible aspect of life. It does not matter where one goes or what one does in America, no two people look or act exactly the same. America has been and still is known as a nation of freedom and diversity. Today, America is considered to be the melting pot, a place where all cultures are supposedly accepted and come together as a whole. Diversity is an issue that Americans have dealt with in the past, are currently dealing with, and will deal with in the†¦show more content†¦When faced with her fathers hurtful words, Elizabeth Cady Stanton was determined to make a difference and help women gain equality (Hymowitz Weissman, 1978). It was obvious to her parents that Susan B. Anthony was going to ma ke a difference in the world. Anthony was an extremely gifted child who had learned to read and write by the time she was three years old. Anthonys father, a Quaker Abolitionist, instilled a strong work-ethic in her at an early age. Anthonys parents treasured their girls and believed they should have unlimited opportunity at success even though they were females. He and his wife were appalled when one of Anthonys teachers refused to teach her mathematics because she was not a boy. Learning this, her father took her out of the school system and hired a female tutor, Mary Perkins, to instruct Anthony and her sisters. Many believe that it was Perkins who got Anthony first involved in womens equality. Not only did Perkins teach academics, she taught lifes lessons and stressed to Anthony and her sisters that they could accomplish just as much as any male. She taught the girls self-motivation, self-discipline, and self-respect (Hymowitz Weissman, 1978). Together, Elizabeth Cady S tanton and Susan B. Anthony worked to gain equality for women in hopes that one day all women would be treated equally in the so-called equal world in which they lived. In 1868, Stanton and Anthony helped create theShow MoreRelatedEssay on Equality in America897 Words   |  4 PagesEquality in America Equality is something Americans strive to provide and maintain. It has become an integral and necessary part of our mosaic culture. Even now to the point that when people think of America, they naturally think of freedom and equality. People of many different races, disabilities and creeds have come to the United States seeking the impartiality upon which this country was founded. The institutions of this country have relied upon it, just as it was the created by the eventsRead More America: Myth Of Equality Essays1325 Words   |  6 Pages America: Myth of Equality To many, the Unites States serves as the ideal model of democracy for the modern world. Yet, how truly worthy is America of this status? Although it has been said that, â€Å"Equality is as American as baseball, hot dogs, and apple pie,† one must be extremely critical when analyzing such a statement. By taking a historical perspective to the question of how â€Å"equal† American equality actually is, it is simple to recognize how problematic the â€Å"Land of the Free† mentality canRead MoreThe Fight For Equality Throughout America1517 Words   |  7 PagesThe Fight For Equality Throughout history, minority groups in America have struggled day after day for the political and social equality that was promised to them in the constitution, that only a portion of the population actually enjoys. The time period from the end of WWII to the present has featured massive movements for equality. Mexican Americans and the LGBT community fought tirelessly for the political rights, social equality, and equal pay that the majority took for granted, and many areRead MoreThe Stress on Americas Equality Essay1176 Words   |  5 PagesIn America’s society, equality has always been a reoccurring issue. All the way from early slavery and the Holocaust to discrimination toward African Americans, females, and now same-sex marriages. As much as our world focuses on becoming equal, each culture deals with it’s own differences. In Michael Jackson’s song, â€Å"Black or White† compared with Macklemore and Ryan Lewis’ song, â€Å"Same Love,† they each approach the same topic encompassing equality. Songs from completely two different generationsRead MoreAn American Ideal Of Equality Is Not An America At All.1501 Words   |  7 Pages An America without equality is not an America at all. The common American citizen would say that the definition of equality is; Equal rights among all people. Equality is also defined as the state or quality of being equal; correspondence in quantity, degree, value, rank, or ability. A historical example that demonstrates the American ideal of equality is the court case Plessy Vs. Ferguson (1896). Plessy was arrested for riding in a white-only seat for being an African-American citizen riding inRead MoreRacism Is America Truly A Place Of Equality?2459 Words   |  10 Pages Is America truly a place of equality? Are all races treated equally? I believe that the answer to these questions is â€Å"NO†, because racism is still a prominent issue of today’s society. Yes, we prog ressed greatly from the past but we still have a long way to go. In order for us to continue working towards equality for all and the end of racism, we must be aware that racism is still alive and continues to affect the world that we live in. Prior to examining the origins of racism in America, oneRead MoreAmerica s Lack Of Economic Equality1154 Words   |  5 PagesAmerica suffers from a lack of economic equality; the population is divided into social classes. Per Mantsios, the upper fifteen percent control eighty-five percent of the nations’ wealth. This attributes the other eighty-five percent of the population the remaining fifteen percent of the nations’ wealth. The people born into a high economic standing can afford better education which prepares them for better jobs. And those who are born into a lower economic standing are more expected to enter lowRead MoreAmericas Core Values Of Individualism And Equality In America753 Words   |  4 PagesIndividualism and equality are two of America’s core values. These core values are the standards by which every American uses to distinguish what behavior are acceptable and what is not in the society in which we live in. It is these two values that ou r responsible for molding our personalities as well as our behaviors. I believe out of all the values the United States possess, individualism and equality are the two most important values to follow. Equality involves the perceived idea that everyoneRead More Social and Economic Equality of African Americans in America1715 Words   |  7 PagesSocial and Economic Equality of African Americans in America The struggle for social and economic equality of Black people in America has been long and slow. It is sometimes amazing that any progress has been made in the racial equality arena at all; every tentative step forward seems to be diluted by losses elsewhere. For every Stacey Koons that is convicted, there seems to be a Texaco executive waiting to send Blacks back to the past. Throughout the struggle for equal rights, there have beenRead More Mexican-Americans Fight for Equality in America Essay1804 Words   |  8 PagesMexican-Americans Fight for Equality in America The United States has always been thought of as the the land of opportunity. Why is it that for years Mexican-Americans have been mistreated and discriminated against? There are millions of people that live in the US that are of Mexican descent. Throughout the Mexican-American history they have faced constant struggles to be recognized as equal citizens. The white man drove them from their own homes when they first settled in America. The Anglo settlers

Trinidad Education Free Essays

In Trinidad, The Ministry of Education has the policy of free education for all. They preach that this ‘free’ education is not based on class, wealth, race, gender or ethnicity but rather is a way to ensure that the entire nation is educated. Though these are the promises on Trinidad’s and Tobago’s Education Policy Paper, how is it that only nine of every one thousand people continue onto college, university or any higher education after secondary school? Twenty-one percent of Trinidadians live in poverty, which means that twenty-one percent of citizens do not have access to running water or proper health care. We will write a custom essay sample on Trinidad Education or any similar topic only for you Order Now Because of this, many children in these poor families immediately enter the world of work or become ‘beggars’ to help feed their family. This shows the importance of social class on the initial decision of whether a child will be educated or not. This is not common as only two percent of Trinidad’s population is illiterate. I would categorize myself in the middle to high status class in my country and this has, in many ways affected my educational opportunities. I lived in a town known as Diego Martin and though my neighborhood mostly consisted of people within my same social class, the town itself has many neighborhoods consisting of people living in poverty. Pre-school education is not considered by government policies and therefore, there are no public pre-schools and if a family wants to enroll their child in preschool they would have to do so privately and with their own money. This goes to show that the first level of education in Trinidad is in fact not free. Because of this, my parents enrolled me in a private pre-school, which would indeed have to be paid for with their own money. This shows the immediate impact that class has on one’s education from just the first steps. Pre-school in Trinidad usually takes about two years and here is where a child learns his numbers and letters and therefore these children living under the poverty line are somewhat ‘robbed’ of these essential learning years. After this, a child must then be signed up for primary school where he or he will spend the following seven years. There are two hundred and sixteen primary schools in the country, one hundred and sixty-three of which are funded by various religious institutions, thirty-two of which are funded by the government and therefore are completely free of charge, and twenty-one of which are privately run. I attended a privately run school as these had higher success rates in the SEA or Secondary Entrance Assessment examination that all primary school students are prepared for in order to gain placement in the school of one’s choice. Once again, though there is an availability of free primary level education, the members of the middle and higher social class send their children to privately run schools in order to ensure that teachers are constantly present and not on strike due to low government wages, and that their children receive a more well-rounded education as there are funds now for sports and other recreational activities. Personally, attending a private school made me not only feel safe, as there were not usually guards present in government funded institutions due to high cost, but to also gave me the opportunities to join different sporting teams and go on school ‘outings’ to various national attractions and the necessary preparation to gain a placement in the secondary school of my choice- the number one girls secondary school in Trinidad. The entrance examination is one aspect that I can truly say that had absolutely nothing to do with class, race or ethnicity as each student was given an identification number and placement into choice schools was done based on results. These secondary schools were again a seven-year course. Therefore, in total one should spend sixteen years at school in order to complete what is considered a general education but the average number of years spent at school in Trinidad is eleven. This means that the average student ‘drops out’ of secondary school after two years. As a female in the top all girls’ institution, I became very gender bias as my school continuously obtained the most government scholarships year after year. Not only that, but nationally women received a significant number of scholarships more than the men did. This may have wrongly shaped my idea that women are in fact smarter than men based on what I experienced at home. Tertiary education for many Trinidadians is extremely class bias. There is one university known as the University of the West Indies and though it is extremely renowned in engineering and mathematical studies it can only facilitate a very small percentage of graduates every year. Therefore, if one wishes to study, he or she may have to look at schools abroad which is a huge expense for any family. Studying in the United States has been a great privilege for me that would never have been possible if I belonged to a lower social class. Overall, my social status granted me opportunities unimaginable for many residents in my country. Despite government efforts to better the education levels of the country there is still a lot to be done in order to meet the goal that class does not determine one’s level or education. How to cite Trinidad Education, Essay examples

Cyprus History Of The Conflict Essay Example For Students

Cyprus History Of The Conflict Essay Cyprus, an island in the Eastern Mediterranean, at the cross-roads of three continents Europe, Asia and Africa has one of the oldest histories of the world, dating back 9000 years. Its strategic position, its wealth in forests and mineral deposits, as well as its skilled craftsmen, made it the prized possession of the powers of the day. Cultural influences came from all directions all major regional civilisations left their mark on the island, contributing to the development of a very rich and diverse cultural heritage. ANCIENT TIMESThe Stone AgeThe first signs of human life on the island date back to c. 8500 BC during the Palaeolithic period. Evidence of human activity was found in cave dwellings near Liopetri, though it is not known whether they were just hunting parties passing through or permanent settlers. The first undisputed settlements are believed to have been established towards the end of the 8th millennium BC. Vestiges of such early communities are found all over the island, such as at Khirokitia, Kalavasos-Tenta, Apostolos Andreas-Kastros, Phrenaros, Petra tou Limniti. Neolithic Cypriots built circular houses with small undressed stones for the lower structures and sun-dried mudbricks and clay for the middle and superstructure. The Khirokitia neolithic settlement in Larnaca district stands out as a striking example of prehistoric architecture. The Bronze/ Copper AgeLarge copper deposits brought fame and wealth to the island and may have even given it its name. It has been documented that during the bronze age Cyprus had intense commercial relations with the main commercial and cultural centres of that time. During this period metallurgy and pottery flourished while close relations developed, particularly with Crete, which are also expressed in the Cypro-Minoan script which appeared in Cyprus around 1500 BC. Of special significance for the future of Cyprus was its colonisation around 1200 BC by Mycenaean and Achaean Greeks, a migration process that lasted for more than a century. They brought with them to the island the Hellenic language, culture and religion. Legend has it that the first Hellenes who settled in Cyprus were heroes of the Trojan war. The arrival of the Achaeans greatly influenced town planning, architecture, and pottery. Since then Cyprus has remained predominantly Greek in culture, language and population despite influences resulting from successive occupations. Iron AgeMore and more people from the Greek world came to live in Cyprus. They built city along the lines of the Greek ones. There were about eleven city kingdoms in all: Kourion, Paphos, Soloi, Marion, Lapithos, Salamis, Kition, Kyrenia, Amathus, and Idalion. Although Cyprus was conquered by other peoples, these city kingdoms mostly ruled themselves, paying taxes to their conquerors. The island was conquered in succession by the Assyrians, the Egyptians and the Persians (800-332 BC). The Classical Period For more than a century, Cyprus was caught in the middle of the power struggle between Greece and Persia. In the 6th century BC Persia became the dominant power and the kings of Cyprus, while being allowed to retain their autonomy, were obliged to pay tribute to the Persian King and place their military forces at his disposal. Persias domination, however, was not maintained easily and there were several attempts tooverthrow the Persian yoke, the most significant being the Ionian revolt and an attempt by King Evagoras I of Salamis to unite all of Cyprus city-kingdoms under him. ttempts failed. The Hellenistic PeriodCyprus stayed in Persian hands until Alexander the Great defeated the Persian Empire when the island became part of his huge Empire. Upon Alexanders deathCyprus fell to one of his generals, Ptolemy I, the ruler of Egypt. From then on Cyprus, under the Ptolemies, was an integral part of the Hellenistic World until its integration with the Roman Empire in 30 BC. During this time Cyprus experienced significant cultural activity and close contacts with the city kingdoms of the Hellenic World. Harrison Bergeron EssayHowever, there was very harsh rule and harsh taxation which impoverished the people, and there were continual revolts. In 1821 an attempt by Cypriots to support the Greeks in their revolt against Ottoman rule was brutally crushed, with the Archbishop being publicly hanged and many others, including three bishops, put to death. Cyprus remained under Ottoman rule until 1878 when, with the Treaty of Berlin, the Sultan in his effort to secure British support in his conflict with the Russians leased Cyprus to Great Britain. Then in 1914, following the entry of Turkey in World War I on the side of Germany, the British government annexed Cyprus and turned it into a Crown colony in 1925. In the meantime Turkey surrendered all claim on Cyprus with the Lausanne Treaty it concluded with Greece in 1923. The British PeriodBritish rule left its mark on the islands complex culture with the adoption by the people Cyprus of some of the customs of their colonial masters, the legacy of some British colonial buildings, and, most importantly, the tradition of the British administration especially in the civil service. Cypriots fought alongside the allies against fascism and nazism during World War II. The British, however, refused to keep their word and offer the island the right of self determination at the end of the war. There followed the Enosis referendum of 1950, when 96% of Greek Cypriots voted for Enosis, Union with Greece. In April 1955 the EOKA Liberation Struggle, against the colonial rulers, resulted in the granting of independence to the island on the basis of the Zurich and London Agreements of February 1959. Independence and invasionThe independent Republic of Cyprus came into being in August 1960. Its first President was Archbishop Makarios. Over the first three years of independence relations between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots deteriorated, mainly as a result of flaws in the constitution which gave disproportional rights to the Turkish Cypriot community including the right to block the passing of laws. In 1963 intercommunal violence broke out following which many Turkish Cypriots withdrew to enclaves. Attempts to bring the two sides back together were made through the United Nations who sent a contingent to the island. On 15 July 1974 the Junta ruling Athens at the time organised a coup to overthrow Archbishop Makarios. A week later Turkey invaded the island, claiming this was to restore constitutional order. However, when the rightful government was restored, Turkish troops stayed on, implementing a long-held policy of partitioning the island. They went on to occupy more than a third of Cyprus, forcing 200,000 people to lose their homes and become refugees. The area under Turkish occupation unilaterally declared independence in1983, an act condemned by the UN and other international organisations. No country in the world other than Turkey has recognised this illegal state. The political issue, despite efforts to solve it, remains virtually frozen since 1974 and the occupation of part of Cyprus by the Turkish army still continues.

Slavery In Maryland Essays - Slavery, Abuse, Crimes Against Humanity

Slavery In Maryland slavery in maryland The end of the war brought a spirit of hope to the people in the country. The state of Maryland responded with new projects and reform throughout the state. Along with the political and social reforms came reform in agriculture, one of Maryland's main economic resources. However, agriculture is closely tied with slavery. The slavery system at this time grew more humane in comparison with the previous eras (235). With a seemingly more lenient system, Maryland earned its reputation as having a mildly abusive system. This doesn't mean that abuse didn't occur. Those enchained under the system in Maryland still suffered physical, mental, and even sexual abuses. Although slavery may have seemed like a part of a political program to help the economics of the state, the reality of it is abuse and suffering. Overall, Maryland did live up to its reputation of a middle temperament state in terms of slavery. Maryland law limited the master to ten lashes, prohibited him from abusing slaves, and required him to supply blacks?with adequate food, clothing, shelter, and rest (236). However, limited abuse does not equate to absence of abuse. There were many shocking accounts of brutal physical abuse in the state. One slave recalls his master who considered whipping as essential to the good of the soul as the body (237). It was the only method of control and authority that the owners had over their slaves. In one incidence, there was a master who forced an old woman to stay outside and search for the sheep that she had lost. She was later found frozen to death outside (236). The masters were often insensitive to the humanness of the slaves. There was ano ther account of a southern Maryland master who would walk behind slaves as they picked tobacco worms and make them eat any they had missed (236). There was a witness who described the seven blacks who took turns standing at the bow breaking river ice with long wooden clubs. Each stint left them exhausted and covered with frozen splashes (239). Although the males usually suffered greatly, the abuse of the women slaves were also horrific. One plantation mistress?would sometimes attack her [the slave]?.'with shovel, tongs, or whatever other weapon lay within her reach? (236). There were also reports of owners who force 'bred' their slaves, fastening them together until a future slave was made (238). Women were vulnerable to sexual abuses, such as countless rapes by the white male owners. One child that resulted from a forced intercourse was Frederick Douglass, one of the most influential freed slaves of his time. When he described his time under his owner Lloyd, the story was not compl etely reflective of the sufferings that have been described of slavery, especially those in the South. As a slave, he played with one of the Lloyd children, ran errands for the master's family, and enjoyed the 'gala days' when slaves from all the Lloyd farms gathered to collect their monthly allowances of cornmeal and pork. (187). However, in spite of this exception, the reality of the inhumane treatment remains evident in the accounts told above. As long as the state instituted the slavery system, abuse was inevitable. Although Maryland was a state that had legalized slavery, their stance on the issue did not necessarily completely reflect their reputation as a middle temperament due to the abuse that existed. In the midst of the growing prosperity, the institution of slavery prevailed along with the characteristic abuses and cruel punishment. History Reports

Free Essays on The Meaning Of Lama Yeshis Last Words To Jan Willis

he is telling her to stop pushing herself to the emotional and physical limits. Understanding your own limitations and giving yourself time to broaden that boundary is being gentle to yourself. If people are honest to themselves with their decisions, then they don’t have to expect great sacrifices and exert great expectations on others, and thus can be tolerant and ‘gentle’ with everyone. Willis's self is a very contradicting persona. She understands that, and always explains it as a fact of her being Pieces, a zodiac sign that represents indecision. For example, there is a contradicting part about how she feels about being on public. Later in life, on one hand, she says being unseen was always the way to exist for her:† I had always been a good girl, eager to please. I had always shunned the limelight, knowing since early childhood that conspicuousness brings with it danger" (676). On the other hand she says she liked being the center of attention: "I marched into the lecture hall proudly... Free Essays on The Meaning Of Lama Yeshi's Last Words To Jan Willis Free Essays on The Meaning Of Lama Yeshi's Last Words To Jan Willis Lama Yeshi’s Words The sense of self is shaped by many factors around a person. From childhood to adulthood personality develops and changes according to the surroundings. When Willis was growing up America faced a dilemma within its borders. After living her life in a fearful environment of the Ku Klux Klan she was thrown with the movement into a rebellion of the Black Panthers. In troubled times not physical appearance, but actions and opinions define a person and thus define ‘self’. And so Willis’s conscience is put to the test. Lama Yeshe’s words; â€Å"Be gentle with yourself, with your mind and body. If you are gentle with yourself, than you can be truly gentle with others† (689) offers her a solution on how to deal with her mental unrest. Drawing from the memoir it can be concluded that Lama Yeshi recognized the ever-present strife between two courses of action that Willis constantly faces. In his words he is telling her to stop pushing herself to the emotional and physical limits. Understanding your own limitations and giving yourself time to broaden that boundary is being gentle to yourself. If people are honest to themselves with their decisions, then they don’t have to expect great sacrifices and exert great expectations on others, and thus can be tolerant and ‘gentle’ with everyone. Willis's self is a very contradicting persona. She understands that, and always explains it as a fact of her being Pieces, a zodiac sign that represents indecision. For example, there is a contradicting part about how she feels about being on public. Later in life, on one hand, she says being unseen was always the way to exist for her:† I had always been a good girl, eager to please. I had always shunned the limelight, knowing since early childhood that conspicuousness brings with it danger" (676). On the other hand she says she liked being the center of attention: "I marched into the lecture hall proudly...

Visual Identity Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Visual Identity - Assignment Example And (6) how does the visual identity graphic fit with the product or service of this company or organization? The company logo is the famous logo for Apple, Inc. and is famously recognized globally by various people who have had interests in computers and its applications. The logo, representing the company Apple was first introduced to me during academic pursuit, as early as one could remember using the personal computer. Likewise, I remember that the logo was initially in rainbow-colored horizontal stripes, but using exactly the same graphic form (an apple with a bite at the right side). Currently, it is in its monochromatic form to indicate a more professionalized and sophisticated style commensurate to the image that the organization aimed to project. A little research apprised me that there was one logo prior to the famous visual representation of the company known as Newton Crest which was used only for one year in 1976 (Edible Apple, 2009). The graphic design is a perfect fit for the company as it accurately provided a visual identity: the representation of the apple with a bite, or byte that the designer, Rob Janoff, disclosed meant: â€Å"the â€Å"bite† in the Apple logo was originally implemented so that people would know that it represented an apple, and not a tomato. It also lent itself to a nerdy play on words (bite/byte), a fitting reference for a tech company† (Edible Apple, 2009, par. 3). Therefore, aside from the apple image, the color selection and the bite were appropriately and effectively designed and evolved through the years to depict transformations from â€Å"using a colorful logo as a means to â€Å"humanize† the company† (Edible Apple, 2009, par. 4), into â€Å"one capable of churning out sleek and cutting edge products† (Edible Apple, 2009, par. 9). Therefore, the visual identity perfectly fit the image of the company in terms of providing opporunities for easy r ecognition and recall of the corporate name and the brand

Seven Years' War Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Seven Years' War Paper - Essay Example British colonies stretched along eastern coast of North America from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia in the north to Georgia in the south. Most of the older colonies extended their claims far westward. As the continents geography was unknown colonial authorities granted provincial charters arbitrarily. As their main centers were situated closely to the coast the y had increasingly growing populations so British settlements and fur traders were expanding inland across Appalachian Mountains. Nova Scotia which had been conquered by the British during Queen Anne’s War retained numerous French-speaking population, principally based on the shores of Northumberland Strait and the Bay of Fundy. Moreover the British claimed Rupert’s Land and established Hudson’s Bay Company to trade with Indians. In spite of the British and French claims the vast areas were under control of indigenous tribes. To the north of Abenaki and Mi'kmaq still dominated parts of Acadia, eastern provin ces of present day Canada and Maine as well as Nova Scotia (Jennings, 1988). Iroquois League held sway over Ohio country as well as over the most part of present day Upstate New York; however the former included populations of Mingo, Delaware and Shawnee. These tribes were formally the tributaries of Iroquois League so were restricted by the latter in authorities to conclude agreements. As soon as the war broke out the French also began to use their business connections to recruit from the native tribes in the western part of Great Lakes region (an area that was not a matter of controversy between the belligerents). Cherokee and Iroquois League rendered support to the British until disagreements ignited the Anglo-Cherokee war in 1758. In that very year the government of Pennsylvania worked out Treaty of Easton. According to that agreement Ohioan tribes swore neutrality in return for concession of the lands. The rest of the northern tribes for the most part took the side of the Frenc h, their main supplier of arms and ammunition and trading partner. Both British and French diplomacies did their best to secure support of Cherokee and Creek tribes’ neutrality. It was common for both small gangs and individuals to take part in hostilities on the different side of the conflict. By the time when the war broke out there had not been any French regular army units in North America though were few British ones. As a rule French possessions in North America were defended by 3.000 troupes de la marine made up of colonial regulars. Some of them had experience in woodland warfare. Also militia bands used to be called for when needed. British colonies enrolled militia units to fight the natives when needed yet did not have any regular forces there. Seven Years changed social, economic and political relations between the main European powers (Spain, Britain and France), their possessions and colonists and indigenes which inhabited the disputed territories. Britain assum ed control over Acadia, French Canada and other possessions inhabited by some 80, 000 predominantly French-speaking Catholics. The deportation of the French-speaking Acadians began in 1775 and made this land available for new migrants from Europe as well as from the southern colonies. Lots of Acadians were resettled throughout British North American provinces, though many moved to France or to Louisiana which they had hoped to stay French. Some of them were exiled to colonize such diverse places as Falkland

Customer Care & Front Office Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5500 words

Customer Care & Front Office - Essay Example This essay describes different care policies, that provide guidelines against which any hotel employee may measure his or her performance in caring for customers. It insures continuity of quality between visits by the same customers and also across various other hotels owned by the same company and over time. The researcher states that word of mouth is the best advertisement any hotel can hope for, and it costs nothing. By having a set of policies to follow, the company helps employees to remember everything which will make customers feel welcome and valued. Without established policies for customer care, there is room for variance in the quality of that care. Different people, even with training, may not habitually treat the customer with the same quality of care. The researcher then describes different communication types and how these are identified and use to best effect and describes the different types of customers who are likely to pass through a hospitality outlet and their d iffering and specific requirements. The researcher of the essay summarizes the sequence and various stages of the customer cycle and the procedures which occur at each stage. This essay also explains the various financial procedures which occur at various stages of the customer cycle, that begins with first contact with the customer when inquiries are made. In the end, the researcher explains the legal requirements, which may possibly affect the interaction of the guest with staff and uses some examples to present them.

Role of Psychological Contract in Starbucks

Role of Psychological Contract in Starbucks The concept of the invisible contract can also be expressed as psychological contract which entails the unwritten employment relationship between the employer and the employee. It is an unspoken set of beliefs usually hidden or remains invisible, held by both parties which co-exist with the written contract of employment. The psychological contract is used to refer to the perceptions of what both employers and employees have regarding their business relationship based on what they are to give and receive from each other respectively. This concept can be traced back to Ancient Greek Philosophers as well as social contract theorists like John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. Kotter (1973) describes the psychological contract as an implicit contract with specifications of how both the individual and organisation are meant to behave in their employment relationship. The psychological contract is an abstract relationship between employers and employees driven by their perceptions of values. According to Cluterbuck (2005) value has three core meanings and they are value as respect, value as worth and value as beliefs. Value as respect refers to the perceptions of the employees towards the organisation with regards to how the employee feels about working with that particular organisation. If the employees feel that they are contributing positively to the organisation and if these efforts are being recognised by the organisation, the hidden orientation becomes successful. Value as worth on the other hand refers to how the employers and employees create added value for each other through reciprocal rewards. For example, the organisation providing Good pay and providing training and development opportunities for the employees while the employees in turn add value to share holders in order to raise capital. In this proposal various psychological aspects will be described in the context of organization and also its employees and also the appropriate methodology for this research will be discussed for the further completion of the investigation. 1.1 Research Question What is the role of the invisible contact or psychological contract between employers and employees in Starbucks coffee in City East District? 1.2 Key Aims This research seeks: To compare the Old and New Types of the Psychological contract To explore the opinions of a selection of Starbucks Coffees employees and their managers about their side of the psychological contract. To evaluate the assumptions both employers and employees have towards the concept of the psychological contract. To explore how psychological contracts can be enhanced to increase competitive advantage in supermarkets. To examine the changes in the psychological contract over the years, the reasons for the changes and the influence the new contract is having over both employees and the organisation. 1.3 Background of the Company: Starbucks Corporation is an international coffee and coffeehouse chain based in Seattle, Washington, United States. Starbucks is the largest coffeehouse company in the world, with 16,120 stores in 49 countries, including around 11,000 in the United States, followed by nearly 1,000 in Canada and more than 800 in Japan. Starbucks sells drip brewed coffee, espresso-based hot drinks, other hot and cold drinks, snacks, and items such as mugs and coffee beans. Through the Starbucks Entertainment division and Hear Music brand, the company also markets books, music, and film. Many of the companys products are seasonal or specific to the locality of the store. Starbucks-brand ice cream and coffee are also offered at grocery stores. In May 1998, Starbucks successfully entered the European market through its acquisition of 65 Seattle Coffee Company stores in the UK. The two companies shared a common culture, focussing on a great commitment to customised coffee, similar company values and a mutual respect for people and the environment. CHAPTER 2 2.0 Literature Review This chapter highlights the major arguments surrounding the concept of the psychological contract. The psychological contract is unwritten and therefore it is merely implied but could be explicit to some extent but not necessarily allow for agreement to the parties involvement. It can differ from individual to individual as well as from various organisations because individuals have various perceptions even with the same terms and conditions it still varies amongst individuals. The concept of the psychological contract can be traced back to Ancient Greek Philosophers and social contract theorists like John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. William Morris described Love of work as a Man at work creating something which he feels will exist because he is working at it and wills it and is therefore exercising the energies of his mind, soul and body (Morris 1870). 2.1 Definitions of the Psychological contract Agyris (1960) has been given credit for bringing to limelight the concept of psychological contract. He describes the psychological contract as a set of practical and emotional expectations of benefits that both employers and employees have of each other. Kotters (1973) defines the psychological contract as an implicit contract between an individual and his organisation which specifies what each is expected to give and receive from each other in the relationship. Morrison and Robinson (1997) on the other hand describe the psychological contract as an employment belief about the reciprocal obligations between that employee and his or her organisations where these obligations are based on perceived promises and are not necessarily recognised by agents of the organisation. According to Schein (1978) the psychological contract was described as a set of unwritten reciprocal expectations between the individual employee and the organisation. According to Goddard (1988), the way psychological contract is managed will determine how successful an organisation will become. The psychological contract entails what both parties to the contract (i.e. the employer and employee) expect from each other based on their employment beliefs and values. 2.2 Types of Psychological Contract Rousseau (1995) describes four types of psychological contract. The first type is the transactional which is short term and there is very little involvement of the parties, employees are more concerned with compensation and personal benefits rather than being good organisational citizens (Robinson et al 1994). The second type of psychological contract is the relational, which is a long term type focuses on more emotional factors like support and loyalty rather than on monetary issues like pay and compensation. The third type is the hybrid or balanced which aims at long term relationships between employers and employees as well as specifying performance requirements. The fourth type is the transitional contract which according to (Rousseau, 1995) does not offer any form of guarantee because of the ever changing nature of the organisations environment. Short Term Long term Transactional (ex. retail clerks hired during Christmas shopping season) Low ambiguity Easy exit/high turnover Low member commitment Freedom to enter new contracts Little learning Weak integration/identification Balanced (ex. high involvement team) High member commitment High integration/identification Ongoing development Mutual support Dynamic Transitional ex. employee experiences following merger or acquisitions) Ambiguity/uncertainty High turnover/Termination Instability Relational (ex. family business members) High member Commitment High affective commitment High integration/identification Stability Table 1: Types of Psychological contract (Rousseau 1995 Pg 17) The psychological contract is an abstract relationship between employers and employees driven by their perceptions of values. According to Cluterbuck (2005) value has three core meanings and they are value as respect, value as worth and value as beliefs. Value as respect refers to the perceptions of the employees towards the organisation with regards to how the employee feels about working with that particular organisation. If the employees feel that they are contributing positively to the organisation and if these efforts are being recognised by the organisation, the hidden orientation becomes successful. Value as worth on the other hand refers to how the employers and employees create added value for each other through reciprocal rewards. For example, the organisation providing Good pay and providing training and development opportunities for the employees while the employees in turn add value to share holders in order to raise capital. There must also be a sense of equilibrium her e so the parties involved feel a sense of fairness. There are two main types of psychological contract and they are the Transactional and Relational Psychological contracts. The transactional focuses on short term and specific monitory agreements with little involvement of the parties where employees are more interested in good benefits and compensations. The relational psychological contract on the other hand is a long-term contract that focuses on support and loyalty rather than on monitory issues, it is a more emotional contract. Rousseau (1990) categorisation of obligations as relational or transactional is shown below (Table 2) Employer Obligations: Transactional Employer Obligations: Relational Employee Obligations: Transactional Employee Obligations: Relational Advancement Training Notice Overtime High Pay Job security Transfers Loyalty Merit Pay Development No competitor support Extra role behaviour Support Minimum Stay Source: Rousseau (1990) Table 2: Categorisation of employer and employee obligations as Transactional or Relational 2.3 Changes to the Psychological contract The concept of the psychological contract has led Academics to carry out a vast and in-depth research on the subject matter. The concept of the psychological contract has changed over the years and this chapter will describe its changes. Holbeche (1998) noted that the old psychological contract existed before the 1980s where employment was guaranteed as long as employees continued to perform their best at work. The change occurred from the 1980s to the present as a result of emergent challenges to corporate strategies which were being influenced by economic turbulence. There was an urgent need by organisations to adopt change to deal with economic downturns and as a result of this most organisations began the process of downsizing and began to focus more on their core business and outsource other peripheral activities. These business strategies were required for organisational development and they challenged the old psychological contract that was based on Job security and moved focu s to a new contract that is based on employability. According to Hiltrop (1995), the psychological contract that gave job security and job stability to the relationship of both employees and employers has dramatically altered in the past two decades. He further stresses the change in nature of loyalty and commitment with the emphasis changing from long term careers to current performance. Rousseau (1995) acknowledges these changes by stating that contracts were previously transactional in nature but with the emergence of the bureaucratic era they developed to become relational. The old psychological contract was based on a reciprocal obligation of both employer and employee where employees provided loyalty to employers and employers gave Job security. Various factors led to the change in the psychological contract and they include amongst others the recession in the early 1990s as well as the effects of globalisation. This resulted in a change from the old psychological contract to a new contract. Individual offered: Organisation expected: Loyalty Loyalty In-depth knowledge of organisation Staff with a deep understanding of how the business functioned Acceptance of bureaucratic systems that defined the individuals rate of progress Willingness to build a career slowly through a defined system Willingness to go beyond the call of duty when required Individuals who would put the organisations needs before any outside interests Individual expected: Organisation offered: Job security Job security Regular pay increases Regular pay increases based on length of service Recognition for length of service Status and rewards based on length of service Recognition of experience Respect for experience Table 3: Adapted from Pembertons model of the psychological contract (1998) Table 3 represented above describes the characteristics of the old psychological contract where the organisation provided job security and rewards based on length of service and the employees provided loyalty and commitment on their part. Sparrows (1996) interpretation of this new contract is outlined in table 4 below: Change vs Stability Continuous Change Culture Performance based reward Development Employees for self-development and increasing their employability. Emphasis on development of competencies and technical skills Rewards Paid on contribution Promotion Criterion Performance Promotion Prospects Fewer chances of promotion due to essentially flat organisational structures focus on sideways moves to develop a broader range of skills Relationship Type Transactional rather than relational; no job security guarantees Responsibility Accountability and innovation encouraged Status Fewer outward symbols Trust No longer seen as essential. Emphasis on engendering commitment to current project or team. Table 4: Adapted Sparrows new psychological contract (1996) These changes occurred against a background of economic hardship; redundancies were widespread, unemployment increasing and government focused on reducing trade union powers. The outcome was a more vulnerable and wary workforce. The economic climate forced companies to examine cost reduction as a means of sustaining or increasing profits. Human resource policies were cost effective rather than paternalistic. Staff were increasingly seen as resources who were useful for a specific role and either adaptable or replaceable when that role ended. The new contract is based on the offer of the employer to provide fair pay for the employee as well as providing opportunities for training and development. As a result of this, the employer can no longer offer Job security and as such has weakened the amount of commitment employees have to offer. Atkinson (2002) suggests that the new contract focuses on the need for highly skilled flexible employees who have little or no job security but are highly marketable outside the organisation. Bagshaw (1997) states that, in this new Psychological contract, individuals need to commit to five key areas which have both short term and long term views. They are Continuous learning, Team working, Goal setting, Proactive change management and Personal advocacy and networking (Bagshaw 1997 pg 188). He further argues that if these key areas are focused on, the employees will be raising their values of future employability. Furthermore, the common dialogue between the two parties with similar interests in mind will establish commitment and loyalty. The reasons for such changes were described by Herriot and Pemberton (1997) as the Restructuring and continuous change of organisations led to increased feelings of inequity and insecurity and as a result, motivation was affected negatively. Hall and Moss (1998) demonstrate the shifting of the psychological contract using three stages of adaptation. The first stage, they described as the trauma of change state and they argued that a lot of organisations go through this stage. The second stage they described as adapting to the new contract where they estimated a 7-year period may be needed in order to fully adapt to the new contract stressing its not a linear process and as such it is possible to fall back to previous states. The third stage is described by Atkinson (2002) as the point of gradual change and continuous learning, valuing the employee and offering loyalty to employees based on performance and development. This stage seeks to avoid the trauma of the changing contract by offering fundamental respect for the individuals involved. Hall and Moss (1998) argue that changes to the psychological contract are possible without going through the first and second stages if handled appropriately. Atkinson (2002) further develops two concepts that emerge from long term management of the contract. The first is that organisations that are successful will provide opportunities and resources to enable individuals to develop their own careers through a relational approach. The second is that organisations will need to be more effective in renegotiating contracts and minimising risks of violating contracts (Rajan, 1997). This is because violating contracts will have negative impacts on employee attitudes and motivation. 2.4 Employer and Employee Perceptions Shore and Barksdale (1998) describe a productive employment relationship as one in which a degree of balance in perceived employee-employer obligations exist. This degree of balance suggests a mutual supporting relationship in which employees offer their skills and organisational commitment in return for rewards from the organisation. Winter and Jackson(2006) argue the need to consider both employer and employee perspectives, they suggested that it will enable investigation into the perceptions of mutuality of both parties and through this process, evaluate how well the employer has fulfilled his obligations to the employees and vice versa. Rousseau (1995) states that psychological contracts are formulated in the minds of the individuals and as a result reflect individual beliefs shaped by the organisation in regards to exchange terms between the employee and the organisation (Winter and Jackson 2006). Rousseau (1995) stresses the need for a link between the employees promises and obligations towards the organisation and that of the employer towards the employee. This is because of the differences in perceptions of both employers and employees of what constitutes the conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement (Winter and Jackson 2006). Above describes the employment relationship of both employer and employee with transitions employees are likely willing to make and what they are able to offer in return. Herriot (1998) describe the process of contracting and negotiating between the employer and employee with a need for organisations to discover individual or group wants and match them with their own wants and offers through negotiation. Holbeche (1998) describes what employers perceptions of employees obligations are, as: Employees will take responsibility for managing their own careers Be loyal and committed Be dispensable when they are surplus to requirements Be adaptable and willing to learn new skills and work processes Holbeche (1998) further suggests the main components of employee expectations as: To be more employable in exchange for job security For organisation to support career development in return for loyalty For high skills and expertise to be recognised and duel rewarded According to Armstrong and Stephens (2005), a positive psychological contract is strongly linked to higher employee satisfaction, better employment relations and higher commitment to the organisation. They further suggest how performance management processes can help clarify the psychological contract and make it more positive through: Defining the level of support to be exercised by managers. Providing non-monetary rewards that reinforce the messages about expectation. Providing a basis for the joint agreement and definition of roles. Providing financial rewards through schemes that deliver messages about what the organisation believes to be important. Shields (2007), states, trust has been discovered to be a critical factor in employee behaviour and outlook. He further argues that when the level of trust between employers and employees fall, employee commitments and satisfaction deteriorate as well as motivation and effort. Guest and Conway (1997) outlined the following set of practices as having the most positive influence on employee work attitudes and behaviour and they are: Job security Training Opportunities High Pay Open communications Employee involvement programs According to Turnley et al (2003), psychological contract breach results in a number of negative results which include, lower levels of employee commitment, increased cynicism, reduced trust, reduced job satisfaction and high turnover. 2.5 Employee Motivation and the Psychological Contract Employee Psychological contracts are defined by Flannery (2002) as the important additional component to an employees job description which makes the job worth doing and reflects the main source of employees motivation. These contracts are part of what motivates employees to be productive at work and enables them to give their all at work. Shore and Barksdale (1998) discovered that employees reported higher levels of commitment, lower levels of turnover and higher organizational support when their employment relationships with their organisations were fulfilled. Rousseau (2004) suggests three ways in which employees design their own psychological contract. First, through their career aspirations, employees make different commitments to the organisation based on whether they view it as a long term employment possibility or a short term one which they need to move on to attain better opportunities. Employees with a stepping stone perspective tend to adopt transactional contracts while employees with long term employment possibilities tend to be more relational in contract nature. The second determinant is the personality of the individual, employees that are highly neurotic will tend to adapt more transactional contracts because they tend to reject actions by organisations to build relationships while conscientious workers on the other hand who possess great value for duty are more likely to have relational contracts. Thirdly, Rousseau states that employees who have negotiated special arrangements that are not usually available to others usually believe they relational contracts. This is because they have negotiated for opportunities for training and development which are special arrangements and a feature of relational contracts. A survey conducted by Guest and Conway (1997) on The Motivation and effort of employees discovered that the more motivated employees had a more positive psychological contract which presupposes that employees who are satisfied with their jobs and committed to their organisations report higher levels of general motivation so also do those with a positive psychological contract (Guest and Conway 1997). It was also discovered that attitudes have the highest influence on reported levels of motivation. Osteraker (1999) suggests there is a link between values and needs stating that individual needs, influence motivation and those needs determine how individuals will behave. Osteraker (1999) further stresses that values and attitudes can change over time due to a change in the organisation such as downsizing and restructuring. 2.6 Culture Hofstede (1984) suggests that different cultures imply different mental programming that controls activities, values and motivations. Therefore, organisational commitment is a psychological state that characterises the employees relationship with the organisation (Kong 2007). Culture is described as consisting of a system of values, attitudes, belief and behavioural meanings shared by members of a society (Thomas et al 2003). According to King and Bu (2005) employees of different cultural traditions and socio-economic environments are more likely to have very different perceptions on employer-employee relations. The type of psychological contract that individual employees will form with their employers is influenced by the personality traits, societal values and cultural norms of that particular individual (Raja et al 2004). This further implies that individual personality traits and cultural norms could provide a system that will explain why employees facing similar work environment and work conditions may form very different employment relationships with their employers (Zhao and Chen 2008). These norms, values and beliefs provide a framework that will determine the way individuals behave and act accordingly. Individualism is defined by Gould and Kolb (1964) as an emphasis on ones self as separate from the others and an end in itself. The individual is independent and self reliant believes in self development and competition. In collectivism, the self often overlaps with a group. The main focus is on cooperation with a group, interdependence, social norms with the group comprising of the m ain unit of social perception with individuals viewed as embedded in a universe of relationships (Lebra 1984). According to Thomas et al (2003) individualism refers to the tendency to be more concerned about consequences of behaviours of ones personal goals through viewing oneself as independent of others while collectivism on the other hand refers to view oneself as interdependent with selected others with consequences of behaviour for the group as a whole and group interest. Research carried out by Zhao and Chen (2008) discovered, that individuals with an individualistic cultural value tended to form more transactional psychological contracts while people with a collectivism cultural value formed more relational contracts. It was discovered that collectivism motives tend to avoid differentiation and focus on relational contracts while self motives were more transactional in nature. This goes in line with research conducted by Lee (2000) where it was discovered that relational contracts are more likely related to behaviour in work groups in Hong Kong than in the United States. 2.6.1 Culture, Personalities and the Psychological Contract Rousseau (1995) outlines the two most important influences of employees psychological contract and they are both the organisational influences and employees personal dispositions. According to Tallman and Bruning (2008), the way employees interpret information from their employers, their observations of actions and activities in the workplace, together with their personal dispositions are theorised to create idiosyncratic contract attitudes in the minds of employees. Additionally, if management understand the factors that influence the development of employee psychological contracts, they may be able to manage these contracts more effectively (Tallman and Bruning 2008). Research carried out by Raja (2004) established a link that connected several facets of employee personality to their psychological contracts. Their research examined personality traits, including extraversion, conscientiousness and neuroticism and the extent to which these personality constructs related to employees choice of a transactional and relational psychological contracts. People high in neuroticism have poor job attitudes and they are unlikely to give of themselves other than what is necessary to maintain their jobs (Tallman and Bruning 2008). Kichuk and Wiesner (1997) further argue that people high in neuroticism are fearful, angry and functions as poor team performers with poor attitudes towards change. Neuroticism has been found to be negatively related to self-esteem and locus of control (Judge et al, 1998). These findings suggest that employees high in neuroticism will develop obligation attitudes that reflect low job commitment and an unwillingness to take initiative in their work. The outcome of Raja et al (2004)s research was that neuroticism was positively related to transactional contracts and negatively related to the relational psychological contracts. Relational contracts are dynamic, involving, emotional and prolonging contracts in nature while transactional contracts are short term contracts with little close involvement of the parties (Rousseau 1995). These findings suggest that neurotic employees reject actions by organisations to build relationships with them and as such are focused on instrumental needs such as good pay and benefits. Raja et al (2004) found extraversion positively related to relational contracts and negatively related to transactional contract indicating extroverted employees are willing to engage in long term relationships with their organisations. This is line with the research conducted by Judge et al (1998) that discovered that extroversion has been related to high job performance, job satisfaction, team performance and low absenteeism. 2.7 Psychological Contract Violation Psychological contract violation has been defined as a failure of the organisation to fulfil one or more obligations of an individuals psychological contract (Robinson and Morrison 1995). They further make a distinction between breach and violation, stating that the breach is the identification that the organisation has failed to fulfil one or more obligations within ones psychological contract. Robinson and Morrison (1995) further emphasise that the breach could be relatively short term and as a result individuals could return to their normal stable psychological state or it could alternatively evolve into the full contract violation. Violation on the other hand is the more personalized emotional state that follows from the belief that the organisation has failed to uphold its part of the psychological contract. Rousseau (1989) describes the contract violation as a broken promise that calls into question respect and codes of conduct which increases intensity of responses. Robinson and Morrison (1995) suggest that the beliefs by employees that obligations and promises have been unfulfilled by the organisation will lead the employees to most likely report a reduction in perceived obligations to their employers, lower job satisfaction and lower citizenship behaviour. Additionally, psychological contract violation reduces organisational commitment and increases cynicism (Robinson and Prior research conducted by Robinson and Rousseau (1994) reveal that contract violations frequently relates to promotion, compensation and training and development where the employees feel that the organisations has not fulfilled their side of the promise. CHAPTER 3 3.0 Research Methodology There are two types of research method Quantitative Method Qualitative Method Quantitative Method All research will involve some numerical data or contain data that could usefully be quantified to help researchers question and to meet objectives. Quantitative method re

Michael Jackson: The King of Reinvention Essay -- Music Icon Idol Jack

Michael Jackson: The King of Reinvention If you look in your copy of Webster's English Dictionary under the I's, you will find the definition for the word 'icon.' An icon is simply an 'image or representation of one who is the object of great attention or devotion; an idol' (Webster's 90). Skipping a few words down, you can find that an idol is 'an image used as an object of worship' It takes much to be worshiped. Throughout time, America's pop-culture has been filled with icons of each generation, such as Babe Ruth or Elvis Presley. These icons represent a dream hidden within each of us ' the dream, though not easily achieved, is to become extraordinarily successful, no matter the circumstances of your origin. Oddly, as if icon status is not enough, Americans seem to have given each of the few individuals who are exceptionally successful nick-names, proclaiming their superiority over the rest of us, such as Ruth's 'Sultan of Swat,' or Presley's 'King of Rock.' As far as pop music goes, there is another individual who has b een worshiped in America for many years. With supreme talent and success, like all of the others icons, this person has been given a name of superiority above the rest. This person is Michael Jackson. Michael Jackson has become the icon we know him as today by achieving two accomplishments. He fulfilled the American Dream-to become successful in spite of his humble beginning-by way of his extraordinary talent. Secondly, he has stayed fresh for so many years, increasing his pop-icon status, by constantly reinventing himself. Only through these two achievements could he have become 'The King of Pop.' Michael Jackson first came on the scene years ago. He was the seventh of eight children, born in Gary, Indiana. Just like the rest of us, he came began humbly. Though an honest, humble beginning, here is where it changes. At the fresh age of five, Michael began a career in music as lead singer in the Motown band, Jackson 5. From the very beginning, Michael took on stardom. He was the icon that America was looking at. He was the voice they listened to. Before reaching the age of ten, Michael had begun to develop a name for himself in the eyes of America?s youth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a child, Michael Jackson was a performing musical prodigy. As front-?kid,? Michael could ?sing any song, with the passion of well trained performers? (Carrigan 1). At ... ...t the 80?s and 90?s. Michael Jackson has brought to each of us a story of our heart?s desire ? the American dream. Michael started off small, in a large family, but through great talent and constant reinvention has shaped himself into one of the greatest icons of American pop culture ? The King of Pop. Works Cited ?Biography on Michael Jackson.? All Michael Jackson. http://www.allmichaeljackson.com/biography.html. Carrigan, Michelle. J5 Influences The Jivy Jackson 5 Page. http://members.aol.com/mikeljaxn/jacksons/essay.htm. Daneault, Jacqueline. Personal Interview. 27 March 2004. "Icon." The New International Webster?s Dictionary and Thersaurus of the English Language. 3rd ed. Boston: Trident Press International. 2003 Langford, John. Telephone Interview. 25 March 2004. Lynch,Christopher. ?Ritual Transformation through Michael Jackson's Music Video.? Journal of Communication Inquiry Volume 25. 01 April 2001. 114-31. Martinec, Radan. ?Construction of Identity in Michael Jackson's Jam.? Social Semiotics. December 2000 Vol. 10, Issue 3. 313-17. Wohl, Alaxander. ?Charting the career of Michael Jackson.? Biography September 1997 Vol. 1, Issue 9 10-17.